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《Nondestructive Materials Characterization: With Applications to Aerospace Materials》
无损材料特性：与航空航天材料中的应用
编者：
Norbert G.H. Meyendorf
Peter B. Nagy
Stanislav I. Rokhlin
出版社：Springer
出版时间：2004年
《Nondestructive Materials Characterization: With Applications to Aerospace Materials》
《Nondestructive Materials Characterization: With Applications to Aerospace Materials》
《Nondestructive Materials Characterization: With Applications to Aerospace Materials》
《Nondestructive Materials Characterization: With Applications to Aerospace Materials》
目录
1 Degradation of Aircraft Structures ......................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................. ....... ..... .... ...... .... .......... ....... ... .... ...... .......... ...... ........ 1
1.2 NDE Methods at a Glance........................................................................... 2
1.3 Degradation of Aircraft Materials and NDE ............................................... 5
1.3.1 Corrosion Protective Coatings ....................................................... 5
1.3.2 Corrosion ........................................................................................ 9
1.3.3 Fatigue ............................................................................................ 15
1.3.4 Freuing and Fretting Fatigue .......................................................... 21
1.4 Introduction to the Next Chapters ............................................................... 23
References ............................................................................................................. 24
2 Optical Detection of Surface Damage ...................................................... 26
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 26
2.2 Background ................................................................................................. 27
2.3 Instrumentation and Method ....................................................................... 28
2.4 Applications ................................................................................................ 29
2.4.1 Optical Quantification of FreUing Fatigue Damage ....................... 30
2.4.2 Characterization of Localized Corrosion Damage
and Its Role for Fatigue Crack Initiation ........................................ 37
2.4.3 Characterization of Crack Damage States
in Titanium Alloys through Examination
of the Surface Deformation Preceding the Crack Front ................. 47
2.4 Conc1usions ................................................................................................. 55
References ............................................................................................................. 56
3 Microradiographic and Foil Penetration Methods
for Quantification of LocaIized Corrosion .............................................. 58
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 58
3.2 Background ................................................................................................. 59
3.3 Microradiographic System .......................................................................... 61
VIII Contents
3.4
3.5
Microradiographie Methods ..... ..................................................... ............ 63
3.4.1 Microradiographic Methods Evaluation....................................... 63
3.4.2 Microradiography of Corrosion Samples ..................................... 74
3.4.3 Mieroradiographie Methods for Pit Depth Measurement ............ 76
3.4.4 Validation of Mieroradiographic Pit Depth Measurement........... 79
3.4.5 Mieroradiographic Characterization of Fatigue Cracks Initiated
by Corrosion Pits.......................................................................... 91
3.4.6 Phase-Contrast Image Enhancement with Microradiography ...... 95
Foil Penetration Method........ ................ .... ........ ........ ................................ 99
3.6 Applicationof Mieroradiography for Studying Localized Corrosion ....... 101
3.6.1 Mieroradiographic Analysis
of Corroded Foil Penetration Samples ......................................... 101
3.6.2 In Situ Mieroradiography of Localized Corrosion Growth .......... 105
3.7 Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................ 110
References ........................................................................................................... 112
4 Interferometric and Holographie Imaging of Surface Wave Patterns
for Characterization of Material Degradation ..................................... 113
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 113
4.2 Background ............................................................................................... 114
4.2.1 Ultrasonie Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) .............................. 114
4.2.2 Surface Acoustic Waves (SA W) .................................................. 116
4.2.3 U1trasonic Reflection and Scattering from Microcracks .............. 119
4.2.4 Loca1 Ultrasonie Scattering from Surface-Breaking Cracks ........ 122
4.2.5 Optical Interferometry and Holography ....................................... 125
4.3 Instrumentation and Methods .................................................................... 127
4.3.1 Near-Field Scanning Interferometry (NFSI) System ................... 127
4.3.2 Frequency Translated Holography (FTH) System ....................... 128
4.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 128
4.4.1 Interferometric and Holographie Imaging of Surface Waves ...... 130
4.4.2 Local Ultrasonic Scattering from Surface-Breaking Cracks ........ 131
4.4.3 Crack-Depth Determination ......................................................... 133
4.4.4 In Situ Stress-Corrosion Crack (SCC) Growth Measurements .... 136
4.5 Future Trends ............................................................................................ 139
References ........................................................................................................... 140
5 Surface Acoustic Wave Characterization
of Pitting Corrosion Damage with Fatigue Crack .......................••.•..... 142
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 142
5.2 Background ............................................................................................... 144
Contents IX
5.3 Instrumentation and Methods .................................................................... 145
5.3.1 Experiments ................................................................................. 145
5.3.2 Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis ................................................... 147
5.3.3 Analysis of Surface Wave Scattering for Crack Sizing ................ 152
5.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 157
5.4.1 Pit Size Measurements ................................................................. 157
5.4.2 Ultrasonic Sizing of Crack Initiated from a Pit.. .......................... 160
5.4.3 Fatigue Life Prediction ................................................................. 172
5.5 Future Trends ............................................................................................ 176
References ........................................................................................................... 177
6 Ultrasonic Fatigue Crack Detection in Aluminum
and Titanium Alloys ..••.•.•.••••.•.•.••.•.•••...••...•.•.••.•...•.•..•.•.•.•.•.•.•••...••••........ 180
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 180
6.2 Background (Crack-Closure) .................................................................... 182
6.3 Instrumentation and Methods .................................................................... 185
6.3.1 Thermo-Optical Modulation ........................................................ 185
6.3.2 The Role ofThermal Diffusivity .................................................. 187
6.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 193
6.4.1 Dynamic Thermo-Optical Modulation in AI-2024 ....................... 193
6.4.2 Quasi-static Thermo-Optical Modulation in Ti-6AI-4V .............. 198
6.5 Condusions ............................................................................................... 204
References ........................................................................................................... 205
7 Early Detection of Fatigue Damage in Ti-6AI-4V
with Nonlinear Acoustics •.••••••••••...•.•....•••.••..•.••..•••....•.•..•.....•.........•.•....• 206
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 206
7.2 Background ............................................................................................... 207
7.2.1 Linear Acoustic Measurements and Fatigue ................................ 207
7.2.2 Nonlinear Acoustics in Fatigue Damage Measurement ............... 207
7.3 Methods ..................................................................................................... 209
7.3.1 General Description ..................................................................... 209
7.3.2 Capacitive Detector Method ......................................................... 210
7.3.3 Piezoelectric Method .................................................................... 213
7.3.4 In Situ Measurement .................................................................... 214
7.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 216
7.4.1 Material and Sampie Description ................................................. 216
7.4.2 Interrupted Fatigue Measurements (Low Cyde Fatigue) ............. 217
7.4.3 In Situ Measurements ................................................................... 220
X Contents
7.4.4 Discussion of Interrupted
and Continuous Measurement Results ......................................... 223
7.4.5 Local Damage Measurements ...................................................... 224
7.4.6 Summary and Conclusions ........................................................... 230
References ........................................................................................................... 232
8 Ultrasonie Absorption Measurements ................................................... 234
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 234
8.2 Background ............................................................................................... 234
8.3 Method ...................................................................................................... 237
8.3.1 Laser Ultrasound .......................................................................... 237
8.3.2 Contact Ultrasound ...................................................................... 237
8.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 238
8.5 Future Trends ............................................................................................ 242
References ........................................................................................................... 244
9 Thermographie Materials Characterization ......................................... 246
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Introduction ............................................................................................... 246
Background ............................................................................................... 246
9.2.1 Thermal Wave and Thermal Diffusion Techniques ..................... 246
9.2.2 Mechanically Induced Reat... ....................................................... 249
Infrared Cameras for NDE ........................................................................ 251
Methods ..................................................................................................... 253
9.5 Applications .............................................................................................. 254
9.5.1 Passive Infrared Imaging of Defects through Organic Coating ... 254
9.5.2 Pulsed Thermography for Detection of Subsurface Defects ........ 256
9.5.3 Fan Thermography for Imaging of Corrosion under Coatings ..... 257
9.5.4 Mechanically Induced Dissipated Heat Analysis (MIDA)-
High Stress Excitation .................................................................. 261
9.5.5 Fatigue Characterization by Mechanically Induced Dissipated
Heat Analysis (MIDA) - Ultrasonic Excitation ........................... 272
9.5.6 Thermographie NDE Based on Heat Dissipation-
Summary and Conclusion ............................................................ 276
References ........................................................................................................... 283
10 Seanning Vibrating Eleetrode Teehniqne as a Benchmark
for NDE of Corrosion ............................................................................. 286
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 286
Contents XI
10.2 Background ............................................................................................... 287
10.3 Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 288
10.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 290
References ........................................................................................................... 292
11 Acoustic Imaging Techniques for Characterization of Corrosion,
Corrosion Protective Coatings, and Surface Cracks •....••.•.•......•.•••...... 294
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 294
11.2 Background ............................................................................................... 294
11.3 Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 296
11.3.1 Scanning Acoustic Microscope (SAM) ........................................ 297
11.3.2 High Frequency Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (HF-SAM) ...... 298
11.4 Methods ............................... , ..................................................................... 299
11.4.1 Acoustic Imaging ......................................................................... 299
11.4.2 Determination of Elastic Properties ............................................. 302
11.5 Applications .............................................................................................. 304
11.5.1 Characterization of Corrosion ...................................................... 304
11.5.2 Characterization of Corrosion Protective Coatings ...................... 313
11.5.3 Microcrack Detection of Fatigued Material Using HF SAM ....... 319
References ........................................................................................................... 322
12 Scanning Probe Microscopy: Ultrasonic Force and Scanning
Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy ............................................................. 323
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 323
12.2 Background and Instrumentation .............................................................. 323
12.3 Methods ..................................................................................................... 325
12.4 Application of the Methods ....................................................................... 327
12.4.1 Imaging of Elastic Properties ....................................................... 327
12.4.2 Scanning Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy
and AFM Scratching for Studies of Corrosion ............................. 340
References ........................................................................................................... 353
13 High Resolution Microellipsometry ....................................................... 356
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 356
13.2 Background ............................................................................................... 356
13.3 Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 358
13.3.1 Imaging Microellipsometer .......................................................... 358
13.3.2 Rotationally Symmetrie Scanning Microellipsometer ................. 360
XII Contents
13.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 363
13.4.1 Measurement of Resolved Features ............................................. 363
13.4.2 Measurement of Sw;face Features beyond Diffraction Limit.. ..... 366
13.4.3 Measurement ofAxial Birefringence ........................................... 368
13.4.4 Measurement of Micro-Optical Components ............................... 370
13.5 Future Trends ............................................................................................ 371
References ......................................................................................................... ,. 372
14 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS) ........................................... 374
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 374
14.2 Background and Instrumentation .............................................................. 374
14.2.1 Basis ofthe Method ..................................................................... 374
14.2.2 Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS) ................. 376
14.2.3 Doppler-Broadening of Annihilation Radiation (DBAR) ............ 379
14.2.4 Slow Positron Beam Techniques .................................................. 381
14.3 Interaction of Positrons with Lattice Defects and Precipitates .................. 383
14.3.1 Change of the Annihilation Parameters Due
to Positron Trapping at Defects .................................................... 383
14.3.2 Kinetics of Positron Trapping ...................................................... 385
14.4 Applications .............................................................................................. 389
14.4.1 Characterization of Plastic Deformation of Stainless Steel... ....... 389
14.4.2 Characterization of Fatigue in Ti-6Al-4V .................................... 392
14.4.3 Precipitation Phenomena in Aluminum Alloys ............................ 395
14.4.4 Characterization of Polymers and Polymer Composites .............. 399
14.4.5 Characterization of Polymer Coatings ......................................... 405
References ........................................................................................................... 409
Index ................................................................................................................... 413
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